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- Nitrification oxidizes ammonia in soil into nitrate, leading to significant nitrogen losses, and reducing nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in agricultural systems. Majority of applied nitrogen fertilizers contribute to environmental issues resulting from nitrification, denitrification, volatilization, leaching, etc., while only 30–50% are absorbed by crops. Nitrification inhibitors (NIs) are compounds designed to slow the conversion of ammonia to nitrate, improving NUE thereby reducing nitrogen loss and mitigating environmental pollution. Chemical NIs, though widely used, pose environmental and health concerns due to their toxicity and persistence. In contrast, biological nitrification inhibitors (BNIs), derived from plant exudates, offer a more sustainable and eco-friendly alternative, effectively inhibiting nitrification without harmful side effects. Advancements in BNIs and their mode of action present promising opportunities for enhancing sustainable farming practices and reducing the environmental impact of nitrogen fertilizers. This review examines the mechanisms of action, effectiveness, and environmental benefits of chemical and biological NIs, highlighting their potential to improve agricultural productivity, reduce nitrogen pollution, and promote greener agriculture.
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- The heavy metal contaminated groundwater results in serious health issues and hence this study attempts to address its sources of contamination using integrated techniques including indexed and statistical methods and its related health hazards. Groundwater pH varied from 5.3 to 8.3 indicating acidic to alkaline in nature. The heavy metal pollution index shows that the groundwater samples vary from low to high pollution class and 21% of the samples exceed the critical limit of 100 implying that they are highly polluted with respect to heavy metals and are unfit for human consumption. The heavy metal evaluation index reveals that all the groundwater samples fall under low pollution. The synthetic pollution index reveals that 2%, 74% and 24% of the samples are suitable, slightly and moderately polluted, respectively, with heavy metals. The water quality index reveals that 19% and 2% of the groundwater samples belong to the poor and very poor water quality category and are spatially situated on the central, northern and southern parts of the study region. Correlation matrix and principal component analysis revealed that weathering of aquifer matrix and anthropogenic activities are accountable for the release of heavy metals into groundwater. Furthermore, R-mode and Q-mode cluster analysis revealed two clusters that are linked to mixed sources including weathering and anthropogenic activities. Based on the hazard quotient, the order of heavy metal impact is Co>Pb>Cd>Zn>As>Mn>Cu>Cr>Fe>Ni for both children and adults. The hazard index values varied from 0.06 to 8.16 for children and from 0.02 to 2.14 for adults. In this study, it is discovered that 43% and 26% of groundwater samples pose a non-carcinogenic health risk in children and adults, respectively. This study highly recommends treatment of contaminated groundwater before consumption in order to protect and maintain public health. The results from this study can be useful for the local municipalities and the policy makers while considering management and mitigation plan to maintain the water quality and to control its adverse effect on human health.
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- The sources of chemical constituents of groundwater and its associated hydrogeochemical processes in the part of Mhlathuze catchment was identified. Groundwater of the area is classified into soft to very hard and the nature is identified as acidic to alkaline. The overall electrical conductivity is < 3000 μS/cm except in three wells. The predominant water type is NaCl (69% of samples) and CaMgCl facies. Gibbs plots, mCa/Mg ratio, mNa/Cl ratio, Ca + Mg vs HCO3+SO4 plot, Na + K vs HCO3 plot, Ca/Na vs HCO3/Na, Chloroalkaline indices (CAI 1, CAI 2) and Ca + Mg–HCO3–SO4 vs Na + K–Cl plots confirm the impact of silicate, carbonate mineral weathering and ion exchange reaction in this aquifer. However, few wells are influenced by the evaporation process. Groundwater is highly undersaturated with sulphate, chloride minerals and saturated with carbonate minerals. CA revealed that Cl and SO4 are derived from anthropogenic sources and a significant positive correlation between HCO3 and Cl reveals that wastewater recharge has most likely simulated the mineral weathering in the vadose zone, which could have further enhanced HCO3 and Cl in the aquifer. PCA resulted in three factors. Factor 1 defines the influence of geogenic and anthropogenic processes while Factors 2 and 3 imply the mineral weathering and nitrification processes. Hierarchical cluster analysis defines that evaporation, anthropogenic input, silicate and carbonate weathering and nitrification process are the sources of chemical constituents of groundwater in this aquifer.
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